Method and apparatus for calibrating a multi-level current mode driver having a plurality of source calibration signals

ABSTRACT

A current controller for a multi-level current mode driver. The current controller includes a multi-level voltage reference and at least one source calibration signal. A comparator is coupled by a coupling network to the multi-level voltage reference and the at least one source calibration signal. A selected voltage is applied from the multi-level voltage reference and a selected source calibration signal is applied from the at least one source calibration signal to the comparator.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S)

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/903,572, filed Jul. 30, 2004, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,093,145, which iscontinuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/655,010, filed Sep.5, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,772,351, issued Aug. 3, 2004, which is acontinuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/478,916,filed on Jan. 6, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,124,221, which claimspriority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/158,189,entitled, filed on Oct. 19, 1999, the contents of each of which areincorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to the field of electricalbuses. More particularly, the present invention relates to a currentdriver for a high speed bus.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Computer systems and other electronic systems typically use buses forinterconnecting integrated circuit components so that the components maycommunicate with one another. The buses frequently connect a master,such as a microprocessor or controller, to slaves, such as memories andbus transceivers. Generally, a master may send data to and receive datafrom one or more slaves. A slave may send data to and receive data froma master, but not another slave.

Each master and slave coupled to a prior bus typically includes outputdriver circuitry for driving signals onto the bus. Some prior bussystems have output drivers that use transistor-transistor logic (“TTL”)circuitry. Other prior bus systems have output drivers that includeemitter-coupled logic (“ECL”) circuitry. Other output drivers usecomplementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (“CMOS”) circuitry or N-channelmetal-oxide-semiconductor (“NMOS”) circuitry.

While many prior buses were driven by voltage level signals, it hasbecome advantageous to provide buses that are driven by a current modeoutput driver. A benefit associated with a current mode driver is areduction of peak switching current. In particular, the current modedriver draws a known current regardless of load and operatingconditions. A further benefit is that the current mode driver typicallysuppresses noise coupled form power and ground supplies.

A known current mode driver is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,254,883 (the“'883 patent”), which is assigned to the assignee of the presentinvention and incorporated herein by reference. The '883 patentdiscusses an apparatus and method for setting and maintaining theoperating current of a current mode driver. The driver in the '883patent includes an output transistor array, output logic circuitrycoupled to the transistor array and a current controller coupled to theoutput logic circuitry.

For one embodiment, the current controller in the '883 patent is aresistor reference current controller. The current controller receivestwo input voltages, V_(TERM) and V_(REF), the latter of which is appliedto an input of a comparator. V_(TERM) coupled by a resistor to a node,which is in turn coupled to a second input of the comparator. Thevoltage at the node is controlled by a transistor array, which is inturn controlled in accordance with an output of the comparator.

When the transistor array is placed in the “off” state, i.e. there is nocurrent flowing through the transistors of the array to ground, thevoltage at the node is equal to V_(TERM). In addition, by using theoutput of the comparator to adjustably activate the transistor array,the '883 patent shows that the voltage at the node may be driven to beapproximately equal to the reference voltage, V_(REF).

Knowing the value of V_(REF) and V_(TERM), the current mode driver ofthe '883 patent therefore provides a binary signaling scheme utilizing asymmetrical voltage swing about V_(REF). Specifically, in a firstcurrent state (the “off” state), the current mode driver is not sinkingcurrent and the signal line (or bus line) is at a voltage,V_(o)=V_(TERM), representing a logical “0.” In a second current state(the “on” state), the current mode driver is sinking current to drivethe voltage on the signal line (or bus line) to be:V _(o) =V _(TERM)−2(V _(TERM) −V _(REF)).The second state therefore representing a logical “1.”

While the above techniques have met with substantial success, end usersof data processing systems, such as computers, continue to demandincreased throughput. Whether throughput is expressed in terms ofbandwidth, processing speed or any other measure, the bottom line is thedesire to get a block of data from point A to point B faster. At thesame time, however, it is desirable to achieve such increases withoutrequiring deviation from known semiconductor fabrication techniques.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

A multi-level driver uses multiple pulse amplitude modulation(multi-PAM) output drivers to send multi-PAM signals. A multi-PAM signalhas more than two voltage levels, with each data interval nowtransmitting a “symbol” at one of the valid voltage levels. In oneembodiment, a symbol represents two or more bits. The multi-PAM outputdriver drives an output symbol into a signal line. The output symbolrepresents at least two bits that include a most significant bit (MSB)and a least significant bit (LSB). A multi-PAM receiver receives theoutput symbol from the signal line and determines the MSB and the LSB.

In accordance with a first aspect of the invention, a current controllerfor a multi-level current mode driver is provided. The currentcontroller includes a multi-level voltage reference and at least onesource calibration signal. A comparator is coupled by a coupling networkto the multi-level voltage reference and the at least one sourcecalibration signal. The current controller further includes a circuitfor applying a selected voltage from the multi-level voltage referenceand a selected source calibration signal from the at least one sourcecalibration signal to the comparator.

In accordance with a second aspect of the invention, a method ofcalibrating a multi-level current mode driver is provided. The methodincludes two current sinks, each capable of sinking current from atermination voltage though a resistor. The first current sink drives aknown amount of current through a resistor producing a first inputsignal. The second current sink is turned on to produce a second inputsignal. An average value of the first input signal and the second inputsignal is calculated. The average value of the first input signal andthe second input signal is compared to a first known reference voltage.And, the second current sink, and thereby the second input signal, isadjusted until the average value equals the known reference voltage.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a memory controller, bus and memoriesutilizing an output driver in accordance with a preferred embodiment ofthe present invention.

FIG. 2 illustrates a preferred encoding scheme utilizing a multi-levelvoltage reference for use with a multi-level output driver.

FIGS. 3A and 3B are schematic diagrams of a first and a secondmulti-level output driver in accordance with embodiments of the presentinvention.

FIG. 4A is a graph showing gds distortion in a transistor.

FIGS. 4B and 4C illustrate the effect of gds distortion on the outputvoltage of a four-level output driver encoding in binary and gray code,respectively.

FIG. 5A is an electrical schematic of a multi-level output driver,having a binary generator, that corrects for gds distortion.

FIG. 5B is an electrical schematic of an alternate embodiment of thebinary generator shown in FIG. 5A.

FIG. 5C is an electrical schematic of another alternate embodiment ofthe binary generator shown in FIG. 5A.

FIG. 6 is an electrical schematic of a circuit to reduce switching noiseat an output pin.

FIG. 7 is an electrical schematic of a multi-level driver, such as thedriver shown in FIG. 5A, that further incorporates a circuit to reduceswitching noise, such as the circuit shown in FIG. 6.

FIG. 8 is an electrical schematic of another alternative gdscompensated, multi-level output driver.

FIG. 9A is an electrical schematic of a gds compensated, multi-leveloutput driver with current control circuitry.

FIG. 9B is an electrical schematic of a set of stacked transistor pairsfor a current drive block, such as the current drive blocks shown inFIG. 9A.

FIG. 9C is an electrical schematic of a preferred gds compensated,multi-level output driver.

FIG. 10 is an electrical schematic of a circuit for calibrating a gds,compensated output driver with current control circuitry.

FIGS. 11A and 11B are a flowchart of a method for calibrating thecurrent control circuitry using the setup of FIG. 10 for the outputdriver shown in FIG. 9A.

FIG. 12 is an electrical schematic of an on-chip, multi-level referencevoltage generator utilizing a resistive voltage divider.

FIGS. 13A and 13B are electrical schematics of a first preferredalternative to the current control calibration circuit of FIG. 10.

FIG. 13C is a timing diagram for the circuits of FIGS. 13A and 13B.

FIG. 13D illustrates alternative embodiments for the differentialcomparator of FIG. 13B.

FIG. 13E illustrates an electrical schematic of a charge coupledcomparator using PMOS capacitors.

FIGS. 14A and 14B are electrical schematics of a second preferredalternative to the current control calibration circuit of FIG. 10.

FIGS. 14C and 14D are timing diagrams for the circuits of FIGS. 14A and14B.

FIG. 15A is an electrical schematic of a linear transconductor.

FIG. 15B is a schematic of a comparator using a transconductor stage.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT(S)

In FIG. 1, a bus 320 interconnects a memory controller 321 and memories322. The bus 302 is formed of signal lines 320-1, 320-2 that transmitaddress, data and control signals. Physically, on each integratedcircuit 321, 322, the address, data and control signals are supplied toand output from external connections, called pins, and the bus 320interconnects respective pins. The bus 320 may be implemented as traceson a printed circuit board, wires or cables and connectors. Each ofthese integrated circuits 321, 322 has bus output driver circuits 323that connect to the pins to interface with the bus 320 to transmitsignals to other ones of the integrated circuits. In particular, the busoutput drivers 323 in the memory controller 321 and in the memories 322transmit data over the bus 320. Each bus output driver 323 drives asignal line of the bus 320. For example, bus output driver 323-1 in thememory controller 321 drives bus line 320-1. The bus 320 supportssignaling with characteristics that are a function of many factors suchas the system clock speed, the bus length, the amount of current thatthe output drivers can drive, the supply voltages, the spacing and widthof the wires or traces making up the bus 320, the physical layout of thebus itself and the resistance of a terminating resistor Zo attached toeach bus.

At least a subset of the signal lines connect to pull-up resistors Zothat connect to a termination voltage V_(TERM). In some systems, allsignal lines connect to pull-up resistors Zo that connect to thetermination voltage V_(TERM). The termination voltage V_(TERM) can bedifferent from the supply voltage V_(DD). In one embodiment, the supplyvoltage V_(DD) is equal to 2.5 volts, the termination voltage V_(TERM)is equal to 1.8 volts, the bus voltage for a signal at low levels V_(OL)is equal to 1.0 volts, and the voltage swing is 0.8 volts. Theresistance of the terminating resistors Zo is equal to twenty-eightohms.

The output drivers 323 are designed to drive the bus 320 with apredetermined amount of current; and the bus receivers 324 are designedto receive the signals sent by the bus drivers 323 on the bus 320. In adevice, each bus receiver 324 receives signals from one signal line ofthe bus 320. The bus receivers 324 are integrating receivers accordingto the present invention.

In one embodiment, the memories are random access memories (RAMS). In analternative embodiment, the memories are read-only memories (ROMs).Alternatively, the bus output drivers 323 and bus receivers 324 of thepresent invention are implemented in other semiconductor devices thatuse a bus to interconnect various types of integrated circuits such asmicroprocessors and disk controllers.

In yet another alternative embodiment, the output drivers areimplemented in a point-to-point system. Although a bus that uses currentmode signaling has been described with respect to FIG. 1, the apparatusand method of the present invention may be used in any signaling systemwhere it is desirable to distinguish between signals having differentvoltage levels.

Multi-Level Signaling

Referring back to FIG. 1, in previously known implementations of the bussystem, signals transmitted on each signal line of the bus have eitherof two voltage levels representing a binary zero or one for binarydigital communication. For example, an output voltage equal to thevoltage level V_(TERM) set by the voltage source at one end of thetermination resistor Zo may represent a binary zero. And, an outputvoltage level equal to V_(TERM)−(I*Zo) may represent a binary one, wherethe output driver circuit 323 sinks an amount of current equal to I. Inthis way, the bus driver circuits 323 can be implemented as switchedcurrent sources that sink current when driving binary one's onto thesignal lines. When receiving data, the receiver circuits 324 detectwhether the voltage on the signal line is greater than or less thanV_(TERM)−0.5(I*Zo), i.e. the midpoint between a logical zero and alogical one, to determine whether the data is a binary zero or one,respectively. In one embodiment, data is transmitted and received oneach edge of the system clock to achieve a data rate equal to twice thefrequency of the system clock. In an alternative embodiment, data istransmitted once per clock cycle of the system clock.

As used herein, the term multi-level signaling refers to signalingschemes utilizing two or more signal levels. Multi-level signaling mayalso be referred to herein as multiple level pulse amplitude modulation,or multi-PAM, signaling, because the preferred coding methods are basedupon the amplitude of the voltage signal. Although the multi-levelsignaling of the preferred embodiments will be described with respect toa current mode bus, multi-level signaling can also be used with avoltage mode bus. In various embodiments of the present invention, thedata rate on a bus is increased without increasing either the systemclock frequency or the number of signal lines. Output drivers generate,and receivers detect, multi-PAM signals that allow multiple (k) bits tobe transmitted or received as one of 2^(k) possible voltages or datasymbols at each clock edge or once per clock cycle. For example, onepreferred embodiment is a 4-PAM system in which two bits are representedby 2² or four voltage levels, or data symbols, and the two bits aretransferred at every clock edge by transferring an appropriate one ofthe four voltage levels. Therefore, the data rate of a 4-PAM system istwice that of a binary or 2-PAM system.

Multi-PAM is not traditionally used in multi-drop bus systems due, atleast in part, to the lower signal-to-noise ratio that is realized whenthe voltage range is divided into multiple levels. Prior art memorysystems have been implemented as only binary systems. A preferredembodiment allows such systems to be implemented using more than twosignal levels.

In FIG. 2, a graph shows one embodiment utilizing a 4-PAM signalingscheme. Specifically, the multi-PAM voltage levels are associated withtwo-bit binary values or symbols such as 00, 01, 10 and 11. In theembodiment of FIG. 2, the binary values are assigned to voltage levelsusing Gray coding, i.e. the symbol sequence from the highest voltagelevel to the lowest voltage level is 00, 01, 11, 10. Gray codingprovides the advantage of reducing the probability of dual-bit errorsbecause only one of the two bits changes at each transition betweenvoltage levels. If a received 4-PAM voltage symbol is misinterpreted asan adjacent symbol, a single-bit error will occur.

The y-axis of the graph in FIG. 2 shows the associated 4-PAM outputvoltages V_(OUT) for each symbol. To provide the appropriate voltage totransmit a 4-PAM symbol, the output driver sinks a predetermined amountof current for that symbol. In particular, each symbol is associatedwith different amount of current. To transmit the symbol “00”, theoutput driver 323 sinks no current and the signal line is pulled up toV_(TERM). To transmit the symbol “01”, the bus output driver 323 sinks apredetermined amount of current I01 to cause the output voltage V_(OUT)to equal V_(TERM) (I·Zo), where I01 is equal to ⅓ I. To transmit thesymbol “11”, the bus output driver 323 sinks a predetermined amount ofcurrent I11 to cause the output voltage V_(OUT) to equal V_(TERM) ⅔(I·Zo), where I11 is equal to ⅔ I. To transmit the symbol “10”, the busoutput driver 323 sinks a predetermined amount of current I to cause theoutput voltage V_(OUT) to equal V_(TERM) (I·Zo). Further detailsregarding preferred embodiments of the output driver 323 are providedbelow.

A 4-PAM receiver identifies a received symbol based on a voltage rangeor range of voltages associated with that symbol. A set of referencevoltages V_(REFLO), V_(REFM) and V_(REFHI) function as thresholds todefine ranges of voltages associated with each 4-PAM symbol. Inaccordance with a preferred embodiment, the reference voltagesV_(REFLO), V_(REFM) and V_(REFHI) are set at the midpoint voltagebetween neighboring symbols. For example, the symbol “00” is associatedwith voltages greater than V_(REFHI). The symbol “01” is associated withvoltages falling within the range between V_(REFHI) and V_(REFM). Thesymbol “11” is associated with a range of voltages from V_(REFM) toV_(REFLO). The symbol “10” is associated with a range of voltages lessthan V_(REFLO). The reference voltages V_(REFHI), V_(REFM) and V_(REFLO)are threshold voltages from which a multi-PAM data symbol is determinedto be one of the four possible data symbols.

4-PAM symbols or signals also allow for direct compatibility with 2-PAMor binary signaling. When operating in 4-PAM mode, the received databits are compared to the three reference voltages, V_(REFHI), V_(REFM)and V_(REFLO) to determine the 4-PAM symbol and the associated two bits.Because the most significant bit (MSB) is determined by comparing thereceived data bit to V_(REFM), i.e. the MSB is zero for voltages greaterthan V_(REFM) and the MSB is one for voltages less than V_(REFM), themulti-PAM system can be used as a 2-PAM system by ignoring the leastsignificant bit (LSB) and using the MSB. Alternatively, to transmit2-PAM symbols using the gray code of FIG. 2, the LSB is set equal tozero (low), while the MSB determines the output voltage.

Multi-PAM signaling increases the data rate with a small increase inpower consumption because the number of input/output (I/O) pins and thesystem clock frequency may be the same as that used for binarysignaling. The major factor in the power consumption of CMOS circuits,for example, is the CV²F power, which depends directly on the systemclock frequency. Therefore, increasing the system clock frequency toincrease the data rate directly increases the power consumption.Although some additional power is used for the additional circuitry ofthe multi-PAM interface, described below, this increase in power is muchless than the increase in power that would occur if either the number ofI/O pins or the system clock frequency were increased to increase thedata rate.

Multi-PAM signaling also increases the data rate without a correspondingincrease in the electromagnetic interference (EMI). If the data ratewere increased by increasing the number of I/O pins or by increasingfrequency, the EMI would increase proportionally. Because multi-PAMsignaling does not increase the number of I/O pins, the EMI does notincrease if the total voltage amplitude of the multi-PAM I/O pinsremains the same as that used in binary signaling. The total voltageamplitude may be increased to provide greater voltage margin to improvesystem reliability. Although the EMI would increase correspondingly, theincrease would be small than that incurred by increasing the number ofI/O pins with binary signaling.

Although the circuits described below use 4-PAM signaling, theembodiments described can be expanded for use in 8-PAM, 16-PAM and, moregenerally, N-PAM signaling. Accordingly, it is to be understood that thepreferred embodiments are not limited to 4-PAM signaling, but rather maybe applied to the general, N-PAM signaling, case.

In FIG. 3A, a 4-PAM output divver circuit 950 is used with currentcontrol bits (CCtrl<6:0>) to produced desired output voltage levels overa set of on-chip process, voltage and temperature (PVT) conditions. Inthe output driver 950, a first driver circuit 952 and a second drivercircuit 954 connect to an I/O pin 956. The first driver circuit 952drives the LSB, while the second driver circuit 954 drives the MSB. Thefirst driver circuit 952 and the second driver circuit 954 have a set ofdriver blocks 958 that are connected in parallel. Since the driverblocks have the same components, one driver r block 958 will bedescribed. Each driver block has a binary weighted driver transistor960-0 with a width to length (W/L) ratio as shown. The drivertransistors 960 of the second driver circuit 954 are preferably twice aslarge as the driver transistors of the first driver circuit 952 becausethe second driver circuit 954 drives the MSB while the first drivercircuit 952 drives the LSB. In other words, the MSB is driven with twiceas much current as the LSB.

In driver block 958, odd and even data bits are multiplexed onto thedriver transistors via passgates 962 and an inverter 964. In thisembodiment, odd data is transmitted at the rising edge of the clock,while even data is transmitted at the falling edge of the clock. NANDgates 966,968 connect to current control bit zero <0>, and the LSB OddData bit and LSB Even Data bit, respectively. When the respectivecurrent control bit zero <0> is high, the NAND gates 966, 968 areresponsive to the odd and even data. When the respective control bit islow, the output of the NAND gates 966,968 is low and driver block 958does not respond to the data bit. The current control bits provide thespecified amount of current to cause the desired voltage swingregardless of the PVT conditions. The circuit of FIG. 3A uses sevencurrent control bits. Techniques for determining the setting of thecurrent control bits are described below.

The passgates 962 include two transistor pairs, each pair including aPMOS transistor 972, 974 connected in parallel with an NMOS transistor976, 958. The clock and clock_b signals connect in an opposite manner tothe gates of the transistors of the transistor pair.

Although FIG. 3A shows that the first driver circuit 952 drives the LSBand the second driver circuit drives the MSB 954, in an alternativeembodiment, the first driver circuit 954 drives the MSB and the seconddriver circuit drives the LSB. Alternatively, any arbitrary codingscheme can be produced by placing combinational logic to combine thedata bits before sending the combined data bit to the driver block 958.

Table 1 below shows two 4-PAM encoding schemes that may be implementedusing the output driver 950 of FIG. 3A.

TABLE 1 Encoding Schemes Data Bits Coding (Symbol) to be SchemeTransmitted MSB Input LSB Input Output Voltage Binary 00 0 0 V_(TERM) 010 1 V_(TERM) − ⅓ (I · Zo) 10 1 0 V_(TERM) − ⅔ (I · Zo) 11 1 1 V_(TERM) −(I · Zo) Gray 00 0 0 V_(TERM) 01 0 1 V_(TERM) − ⅓ (I · Zo) 11 1 1V_(TERM) − ⅔ (I · Zo) 10 1 0 V_(TERM) − (I · Zo)

In another embodiment shown in FIG. 3B, a 4-PAM output driver 980 usescurrent control bits to control switch transistors in series with theoutput current source transistors, resulting in the desired outputvoltage levels. Two sets 981-1 and 981-2 of binary weighted transistors982-986 combines the current control bits with 4-PAM signal generation.The current control bits directly control current-control NMOStransistors 982-2, 984-2, 986-2 that are connected in series with thedriver transistors 982-1, 984-1, 986-1, respectively, that receive theLSB and MSB data. For odd data, the driver transistors 982-1, 984-1,986-1, cause current to flow to the I/O pin 956 when the respective databit and the clock signal are high, and the associated current controlbit is high to place NMOS transistors 982-2, 984-2 and 986-2 in theactive state.

The circuit for even data is not shown, but a separate set of currentcontrol NMOS transistors connects in series with a set of drivertransistors that respond to the logical “AND” of the respective data bitand the complement of the clock signal clock_b for even data.

The output voltages of the circuits of FIGS. 3A and 3B include gdsdistortion from the driver transistors. In FIG. 4A, a graph shows gdsdistortion. The x-axis shows the drain-to-source voltage, and the y-axisshows the drain current. Specifically, gds of a MOS transistor is thechange of drain current in response to a change in drain voltage. FIGS.4B and 4C show the data bits, in binary and gray code respectively, andthe effect of gds distortion on the output voltage V_(OUT). Inparticular, as the output voltage V_(OUT) decreases, the incrementalvoltage difference between adjacent bits pairs decreases. Because of gdsdistortion, the voltage increments between the 4-PAM voltages aregenerally not equal.

In FIG. 5A, a 4-PAM output driver 1000 that corrects for gds distortionis shown. The output driver 1000 is two-way multiplexed, with themultiplexing occurring at the I/O pin 956. The output driver is of theopen-drain type and operated in current-mode, with the output currentset by a bias voltage on a current source device coupled in series witheach of the transistors 1002, 1004 and 1006. For simplicity the currentcontrol transistors are not shown. In accordance with a preferredembodiment, a new output symbol is generated on each rising and fallingedge (referred to herein as “odd” and “even,” respectively) of theclock.

The gds distortion is eliminated by adjusting the width to length (W/L)ratio of transistors 1004 and 1006 by factors α and β, such that β>α>1and the incremental voltage difference between adjacent 4-PAM levels isconstant. Transistors 1002, 1004 and 1006 have a width to length ratioof W/L, α(W/L), and β(W/L) respectively.

Examples of encoding schemes that may be implemented using the outputdriver of FIG. 5A are shown in Table 2 below. In accordance with apreferred embodiment, input signals A, B, and C are derived from the MSBand LSB of a symbol to be transmitted to produce the 4-PAM levels asshown in Table 2 below. The encoder of the output driver 1000 usescombinational logic 1007 to produce the A, B and C inputs according toTable 2.

TABLE 2 Mapping of Data Bits to ABC Inputs and Encoding Schemes DataBits Coding (Symbol) to be Scheme Transmitted A B C Output VoltageBinary 00 0 0 0 V_(TERM) 01 1 0 0 V_(TERM) − ⅓(I · Zo) 10 1 1 0 V_(TERM)− ⅔(I · Zo) 11 1 1 1 V_(TERM) − (I · Zo) Gray 00 0 0 0 V_(TERM) 01 1 0 0V_(TERM) − ⅓(I · Zo) 10 1 1 0 V_(TERM) − ⅔(I · Zo) 11 1 1 1 V_(TERM) −(I · Zo)A binary encoder 1007 is illustrated in FIG. 5B. In the encoder 1007, anOR gate 1008 generates the A signal by performing an OR operationbetween the LSB and MSB. The B input is the MSB. An AND gate 1009generates the C signal by performing an AND operation between the LSBand MSB.

In FIG. 5C, and alternative preferred encoder 1007 encodes the LSB andMSB using Gray code. The encoder 1007 of FIG. 5C is the same as theencoder 1007 of FIG. 5B except that, to generate the C signal, the ANDgate 1009 a receives the complement of the LSB rather than the LSB.

In FIG. 9C, an alternative preferred embodiment of the gds compensatedoutput driver is shown. In this embodiment, the output driver hasseparate odd and even symbol encoders, with the encoder outputs beingmultiplexed at the gates of the output transistors.

On-chip, single-ended output drivers, as shown in FIGS. 3A and 3Bgenerate switching noise. For example, when the transistors in theoutput driver transition from sinking no current such as when drivingthe “00” symbol, to sinking maximum current such as when driving thegray-coded “10” symbol, the current surges through the I/O pin 956 andthrough a ground pin. The path between I/O pin 956 and ground hasinherent inductance that opposes the current surge and producessignificant switching noise (i.e., ground bounce). Because the voltagemargins for multi-PAM signaling are less than the voltage margins forbinary signaling, switching noise may cause decoding errors.

To reduce sensitivity to switching noise, output drivers can provide aconstant or semi-constant current to ground regardless of the outputcurrent being driven. As shown in FIG. 6, each single-ended transistorbranch 960 (FIG. 3A) and 986 (FIG. 3B) in the output drivers of FIGS. 3Aand 3B is replaced with a differential pair 1010.

When the output driver sinks output current from the I/O pin 956,current is steered through transistor N1 1012 to ground. When transistorN1 1012 is inactive, transistor N2 1014 becomes active to allow the sameor substantially the same amount of current to flow to ground. In thisway, a substantially constant amount of current continuously flows toground to eliminate a large portion of the output driver switching noiseand provide a quieter on-chip ground, thereby improving the performanceof the 4-PAM signaling. The signal V_(I), is the signal that drivestransistor N1 1012. Alternatively, the signal V_(R) that drivestransistor N2 1014 is a reference voltage between ground and V_(I). Inresponse to an input voltage V_(CNTRL), the current source 1016 sinks apredetermined current Io to ground.

FIG. 7 is another embodiment of a multi-PAM output driver that combinesthe circuit of FIG. 5A, which eliminates gds distortion, with thecircuit of FIG. 6 to reduce sensitivity to switching noise.

In FIG. 8, yet another gds compensated 4-PAM output driver is shown. Inthe 4-PAM output driver, the A, B, and C signals drive equal-sized NMOStransistors 1018, 1020, 1022 having width W. In accordance with apreferred embodiment, signals B and C also drive NMOS transistors 1024,1026 of width W_(B) and W_(C), respectively, to compensate for gdsdistortion. The widths of the NMOS transistors 1024 and 1026, W_(B) andW_(C), respectively, are chosen such that the difference between outputlevels for adjacent bits is substantially the same, such as ⅓ (I·Zo).The widths of the transistors 1018-1026 may therefore have the followingrelationship:W+W _(C) >W+W _(B) >W

In FIG. 9A, a 4-PAM output driver corrects the gds distortion andprovides current control. As described above, the signals A, B and Cpreferably determine the output voltage or symbol in accordance with thegray-coded binary signaling shown in Table 2, above. In addition, threesets of current control calibration bits, CC, CCB and CCC, respectivelydetermine the amount of current supplied by the output driver forvarious combinations of A, B and C. The first set of control bits CCprovides primary current control, while the second and third sets ofcurrent control bits, CCB and CCC, respectively, fine tune the amount ofcurrent. The first set of current control bits CC has N bits; the secondset of current control bits CCB has n1 bits; and the third set ofcurrent control bits CCC has n2 bits. In one embodiment, therelationship between the number of current control bits is as follows:n1≦n2<N.There may be different relationships between N, n1 and n2 in alternativeembodiments.

Each of the A, B and C signals is associated with a current drive block1040 to drive a predetermined amount of current associated with thesymbol. Each current drive block 1040 includes one or more sets ofstacked resistor pairs 1042 that are associated with each set of currentcontrol bits for that current driver block 1040. For example, thecurrent drive block 1040-1 that drives the A signal receives currentcontrol bits CC. The current drive block 1040-2 that drives the B signalreceives current control bits CC and CCB. The amount of current suppliedby current drive block 1040-2 is adjusted for gds distortion using theCCB bits. The current drive block 1040-3 that drives the C signalreceives current control bits CC and CCC. The amount of current suppliedby current drive block 1040-3 is adjusted for gds distortion using theCCC bits.

Referring also to FIG. 9B, a set of stacked transistor pairs 1042 isshown. Each stacked transistor pair 1042 includes two NMOS transistors1046, 1048 connected in series. The lower NMOS transistor 1046 connectsto the one of the A, B, or C signals associated with the current driveblock 1040. The upper NMOS transistor 1048 connects to a current controlbit. The lower NMOS transistor 1046 is preferably wider than the upperNMOS transistor 1048. Because there are N CC bits, there are N stackedtransistor pairs. For example, the current control block 1040 has Nstacked transitory pairs 1042-1 to 1042-N, and each stacked transistorpair connects to one of the current control bits, CC<0> to CC<N−1>.

The transistors of the stacked transistor pairs are binary weighted withrespect to minimum width of W1 for the upper transistors and W2 for thelower transistors. The widths W1 and W2 may be chosen to determineoutput characteristics such as output resistance and capacitance.Generally the widths W1 and W2 are chosen such that W1 is less than W2.

Although drawn to illustrate the circuit for the CC current controlbits, the circuit diagram of FIG. 9B also applies to the sets of stackedtransistor pairs associated with the CCB and CCC current control bits.

As shown in FIG. 10, a current control calibration circuit 1050determines the settings for the current control bits CC, CCB and CCC byselecting a current control reference voltage, V_(REF), and comparingthe current control reference voltage, V_(REF), to a voltage at amid-point between two calibration output voltages, V_(OUT-1) andV_(OUT-2). The current calibration circuit 1050 determines settings foreach of the sets of current control bits CC, CCB and CCC for each 4-PAMoutput voltage such that V_(OUT-1) and V_(OUT-2) provide each adjacentpair of voltage levels to the circuit.

A multiplexor 1052 receives the three 4-PAM reference voltagesV_(REFHI), V_(REFM) and V_(REFLO). A select reference voltage signal,SelRef, selects one of the referenced voltages as the selected currentcontrol reference voltage, V_(REF). A comparator 1054 compares theselected current control reference voltage V_(REF) to a mid-pointvoltage V_(X) and generates a comparison signal.

To generate the mid-point V_(X), output driver 1 (1056) sinks a firstamount of current to provide the first output voltage V_(OUT-1) andoutput diver 2 (1058) sinks a second amount of current to provide thesecond output voltage V_(OUT-2). Two passgate pairs 1060, 1062, inresponse to a current control enable and its complementary signal, actas a resistor divider to provide the midpoint voltage, V_(X), betweenthe first output voltage, V_(OUT-1), and the second output voltage,V_(OUT-2).

A state machine 1064 includes first, second and third counters, 1066-1,1066-2 and 1066-3 that provide the first, second and third sets ofcurrent control bits, CC, CCB and CCC, respectively. If the comparisonsignal indicates that the midpoint signal V_(X) is greater than thereference voltage V_(REF), the state machine 1064 increments anassociated set of current control bits by one to increase the amount ofcurrent that is sunk by the output driver, thereby decreasing themidpoint voltage. If the midpoint voltage signal V_(X) is less than thecurrent control reference voltage, V_(REF), the state machine 1064decrements the associated current control bits by one, therebyincreasing the midpoint voltage.

In one embodiment, the current control bits are calibrated during apower-up sequence. The theory of operation for calibrating the currentcontrol bits is as follows. The first set of current control bits CCprovide the primary amount of current control for each current controlblock 1040. To compensate for gds distortion, the CCB and CCC currentcontrol bits fine tune the amount of current associated with theGray-coded “11” and “10” signals, respectively. The current control bitsare calibrated in the following order: CC, CCB, then CCC.

In alternative embodiments, the current control bits may be calibratedafter power-up in response to triggering events, e.g., lapse of a periodof time, a change in ambient temperature, a change in power supplyvoltage, or in response to a threshold number of errors.

Referring also to FIG. 4B, the first and main set of current controlbits CC are set using the voltage differences between the “00” and “01”symbols. The first set of current control bits CC are set to provide aamount of current to provide the output voltage for the “01” symbol suchthat V_(REFHI) is placed at the midpoint between the output voltage forthe “00” symbol and the output voltage for the “01” symbol. As shown inFIG. 4B, because of gds distortion, without compensation, the voltagedifference between the “01” symbol and the “11” symbol is less than thevoltage difference between the “00” symbol and the “01” symbol. Tocompensate for the gds distortion, the output voltage for the “11”symbol is decreased by increasing the amount of current sunk by theoutput driver. The second set of current control bits CCB are set toincrease the current sunk by the output diver such that the outputvoltage becomes equal to the desired voltage level when the midpointvoltage between output voltage for the “01” and “11” is equal toV_(REFM).

Finally, the third set of current control bits CCC is adjusted such thatthe midpoint voltage between output voltage for the “11” and “10” isequal to V_(REFLO).

Referring to FIGS. 10, 11A and 11B, the operation of the circuit 1050including the state machine 1064 will be described. The flowchart ofFIGS. 11A and 11B uses gray coded output voltages. In step 1070, thecurrent control enable signal (ccen) and its complement (ccenb) are setto activate the passgate pairs 1060 and 1062 and output the midpointvoltage V_(X), described above.

Three major blocks of steps 1072, 1074 and 1076 set the current controlbits, CC, CCB and CCC, respectively.

In block 1072, step 1078 sets the initial conditions for determining thesettings for the first set of current control bits CC. The state machine1064 outputs the select reference voltage signal (SelRef) which causesthe multiplexor 1054 to output the reference voltage V_(REFHI) to thecomparator 1054. A “00” symbol is supplied to output driver 1 (1056) byoutputting multi-PAM bit selection signals A1, B1 and C1 with values ofzero. A “01” symbol is supplied to output driver 2 (1058) by outputtingmulti-PAM bit selection signals A2 with a value of one, and B2 and C2with a value of zero. The initial state of the first, second and thirdcurrent control bits is as follows:CC={1 0 0 . . . 0};CCB={1 0 0 . . . 0}; andCCC={1 0 0 . . . 0}.The current control bits are initially set such that the stackedtransistor pair sinking the most current will be activated.

In step 1080, the output drivers 1 and 2 output the voltagescorresponding to the symbols “00” (the V_(TERM) reference) and “01” (thedrive level under calibration) and the midpoint voltage V_(X) isgenerated. In step 1082, the comparator 1054 compares the midpointvoltage V_(X) to the selected reference voltage V_(REFHI). When themidpoint voltage is within one least significant bit of the referencevoltage V_(REFHI), the first set of current control bits have the propersetting. The state machine 1058 determines that the midpoint voltageV_(X) is within one least significant bit of the reference voltageV_(REFHI) when the current control bits begin to dither between twosettings. In other words, the output of the comparator will alternatebetween a zero and a one.

In step 1084, when the midpoint voltage V_(X) is not within one leastsignificant bit of the reference voltage V_(REFHI) the state machine1064 augments the first set of current control bits depending on theresult of the comparison. The term “augment” is used to indicate eitherincrementing or decrementing the current control bits. The processproceeds to step 1080.

If, in step 1082, the state machine 1064 determines that the midpointvoltage V_(X) is within one least significant bit of the referencevoltage, the process proceeds to step 1086 to calibrate the second setof current control bits, CCB.

In step 1086, the initial conditions for calibrating the second set ofcurrent control bits CCB are set. The state machine 1064 outputs theselect reference voltage signal (SelRef) which causes the multiplexor1054 to output the reference voltage V_(REFM) to the comparator 1054. A“01” symbol is supplied to output driver 1 (1056) by outputtingmulti-PAM bit selection signals A1 with a value of one, and B1 and C1with values of zero. An “11” symbol is supplied to output driver 2(1058) by outputting multi-PAM bit selection signals A2 and B2 with avalue of one, and C2 with a value of zero. The state of the first set ofcurrent control signals CC remains unchanged. The initial state of thesecond and third sets of current control bits, CCB and CCC,respectively, is as follows:CCB=[1 0 0 . . . 0};CCC=[1 0 0 . . . 0}.

In step 1088, the output drivers 1 (1056) and 2 (1058) output thevoltages corresponding to the symbols “01” (the level calibrated in step1072) and “11” (the level now under calibration), and the passgate pairs1060, 1062 output the midpoint voltage V_(X). In step 1090, thecomparator 1054 compares the midpoint voltage V_(X) to the selectedreference voltage V_(REFM). When the midpoint voltage is not within oneleast significant bit of the reference voltage V_(REFM) as describedabove with respect to V_(REFHI), in step 1092, the state machine 1064augments the second set of current control bits CCB by one and theprocess repeats at steps 1086.

When the midpoint voltage is within one least significant bit of thereference voltage V_(REFM) as described above with respect to V_(REFHI),the second set of current control bits CCB have the proper setting andthe process proceed to step 1094 to calibrate the third set of currentcontrol bits, CCC.

In step 1094, the initial conditions for calibrating the third set ofcurrent control bits CCC are set. The state machine 1064 outputs theselect reference voltage signal (SelRef), which causes the multiplexor1054 to output the reference voltage V_(REFLO) to comparator 1054. A“11” symbol (calibrated in step 1074) is supplied to output driver 1(1056) by outputting multi-PAM bit selection signals A1 and B1 with avalue of one, and C1 with a value of zero. A “10” symbol (the level nowunder calibration) is supplied to output driver 2 (1058) by outputtingmulti-PAM bit selection signals A2, B2 and C2 with a value of one. Thestate of the first and second sets of current control signals CC andCCB, respectively, remains unchanged. The initial state of the thirdsets of current control bits CCC is as follows:CCC={1 0 0 . . . 0}.

In step 1096, the output drivers 1 (1056) and 2 (1058) output thevoltages corresponding to the symbols “11” and “10” and the passgatepairs 1060, 1062 output the midpoint voltage V_(X). In step 1098, thecomparator 1054 compares the midpoint voltage V_(X) to the selectedreference voltage V_(REFLO). When the midpoint voltage is not within oneleast significant bit of the reference voltage V_(REFLO), as describedabove with respect to V_(REFHI) in step 1100, the state machine 1064augments the third set of current control bits CCC by one and theprocess repeats at step 1094.

In step 1098, when the midpoint voltage is within one least significantbit of the reference voltage V_(REFLO), the appropriate settings for thefirst, second and third sets of current control bits, CC, CCB and CCCrespectively are determined and the calibration is complete.

For the foregoing embodiment, a sequential search is described: startingat an initial value and augmenting. It should be emphasized, however,that alternative search techniques known to those skilled in the art maybe used. For example, without limiting the foregoing, successiveapproximation using a binary search may be used. As a further, althoughless desirable because it is hardware intensive, alternative, a directflash conversion may be used.

In FIG. 12, a 4-PAM reference voltage generator 1380 generators themulti-PAM reference voltages V_(REFHI), V_(REFM) and V_(REFLO) fromexternal voltages, V_(TERM) and V_(REF), supplied on input pins 1382,1384 respectively. Unity gain amplifiers 1386, 1388 receive and outputthe input voltages V_(TERM) and V_(REF) respectively. A voltage divider,including series-connected resistors R1, R2 and R3, is coupled betweenthe outputs of the unity gain amplifiers 1386 and 1388. The lowestvoltage V_(REF) is selected to drive V_(REFLO) via a power driver 1390.Power drivers 1392, 1394 are coupled between resistors R3, R2 and R2 toprovide reference voltages V_(REFHI) and V_(TERM) respectively. Thepower drivers 1390-1394 are connected as unity gain amplifiers.

In one embodiment, the resistor values are selected such that resistorsR2 and R3 have twice the resistance of resistor R1, and V_(REF), whichis supplied externally, is equal to the desired V_(REFLO) voltage.

An electrical schematic of a first preferred alternative to the currentcontrol calibration circuit of FIG. 10 is shown in FIGS. 13A and 13B. InFIG. 13A, a comparator 1500 is coupled by a multiplexor 1502 to amulti-level voltage reference 1504, which in this case includes threediscrete levels. One of the three reference voltage levels, V_(REFHI),V_(REFM) or V_(REFLO), is selectively applied to two inputs of thecomparator 1500, as further described below. The comparator 1500 is alsocoupled to receive source calibration signals 1506 and 1508, which aresupplied by current mode drivers, such as the 4-PAM driver 1000 shown inFIG. 5A. The source calibration signals 1506 and 1508, for theembodiment shown, include a first driver output at a known, orpreviously calibrated, voltage level on the input line 1506 and anunknown driver output voltage level on the input line 1508, such thatthe signal on input line 1508 is the signal being calibrated. Thecomparator 1500 provides an output for adjusting or calibrating theoutput of the drivers on input line 1508, as further described below, sothat the driver output can be reliably received and decoded.

FIG. 13B is an electrical schematic of the comparator 1500 shown in FIG.13A. The two inputs from the multiplexor 1502 and the source calibrationsignals 1506 and 1508 are each coupled to an input of a switch 1510. Theoutputs of the switches 1510 are combined in pairs and each combinedswitch output is connected to a coupling capacitor 1512. The couplingcapacitors 1512 are connected to opposing inputs 1514 a and 1514 b of atransistor comparator 1516. The output of the transistor comparator 1516is the voltage across nodes 1518 and 1520. Two switches 1522 selectivelycouple the output nodes 1518 and 1520 to the inputs 1514 a and 1514 b,respectively. The output nodes 1518 and 1520 are coupled to a latchingstage 1524.

As illustrated in FIG. 13B, the elements of the comparator 1500,including the switches 1510, the coupling capacitors 1512, the amplifier1516 and the switches 1522, are preferably implemented as semiconductordevices in an integrated circuit. The coupling capacitors 1512 arepreferably constructed using MOS transistors connected as capacitors butother embodiments may alternatively use other capacitor types. Thoseskilled in the art of integrated circuit design will appreciate that, asa result of process variation, there is likely to be a random offsetvoltage associated with the transistor comparator 1516. In other words,if the same voltage is applied at the inputs 1514 a and 1514 b, a finitevoltage will appear across output nodes 1518 and 1520, rather than theideal case in which the output nodes 1518 and 1520 are at the samepotential. While the offset voltage is not typically significant forsystems using binary or 2-PAM signaling, it is preferable to correct forthe offset voltage in systems using four or more signal levels, such asa 4-PAM system.

The comparator 1500 of FIG. 13B therefore includes offset cancellationcircuitry. Specifically, the coupling capacitors 1512 and the switches1522 are operable to provide offset cancellation as follows. During thecancellation phase, which may also be referred to herein as theauto-zero phase, signal az, which is coupled to the gates of thetransistor switches 1522, is high. Referring back to FIG. 13Amomentarily, the signal az is generated by a non-overlapping clockdriver, which includes elements U29, U16, U18, etc. The non-overlappingclock driver produces skewed signals, with a delay period betweentransitions.

Referring again to FIG. 13B, when the signal az goes high, the amplifier1516 is placed into unity gain mode by turning on switches 1522 and theoffset voltage is stored on the coupling capacitors 1512. In addition,during the auto-zero phase, the switches 1510 are set to apply, in thisparticular embodiment, the reference voltage supplied by the multiplexor1502 and the known output driver voltage 1506 to the coupling capacitors1512. Thus, during the auto-zero phase, the transistor comparator 1516samples the difference between the two known voltages as modified by theoffset voltage of transistor comparator 1516.

At the end of the auto-zero phase, switches 1522 are opened, placing theamplifier 1516 into a high gain mode, and then there is a momentarydelay followed by a compare phase. At the start of the compare phase,the state of the switches 1510 is changed to sample the referencevoltage supplied by the multiplexor 1502 and the unknown output drivervoltage 1508 onto the coupling capacitors 1512. Because the chargestored from the auto-zero phase is trapped on the coupling capacitors1512, any change in the input voltages, such as the change to theunknown output driver voltage 1508, produces a voltage across the inputnodes 1514 a and 514 b of the transistor comparator 1516. This in turnproduces an output voltage across the nodes 1518 and 1520 that ispreferably latched into a latching stage 1524.

The control logic enables strobing of the latching stage 1524. Inaccordance with a preferred embodiment, the latch 1524 may be strobedmultiple times during a single compare phase. Alternatively, the latch1524 may be strobed only once during a single compare phase.

In accordance with a preferred embodiment, a current control transistorin the current mode driver is adjusted, for example as described abovewith respect to FIGS. 10, 11A and 11B or as described in U.S. Pat. No.5,254,883, based upon the output of the transistor comparator 1516. Inaccordance with a preferred embodiment, the unknown driver outputvoltage level on line 1508 is incrementally adjusted, such as byincreasing or decreasing the amount of current sunk by the outputdriver, until the average value of the voltage levels on lines 1506 and1508 is equal to the reference voltage supplied by the multiplexor 1502.

FIG. 13C is a timing diagram illustrating the relationship betweenseveral of the signals referenced above. The timing signals 1526 and1528 drive the non-overlapping clock driver in FIG. 13A. The auto-zeroand compare phases are defined in accordance with the signal 1526. Thesignal 1530 is the voltage output of the comparator, as shown at pin1532 in FIG. 13A. The known voltage signal 1506 and the known voltagereference from the multiplexor 1502 are essentially constant. Theunknown voltage signal 1508 is adjusted, in this example it isdecreasing. When the unknown voltage signal 1508 reaches the point wherethe reference voltage is equal to the average of the signals 1506 and1508, the output of the comparator circuit 1530 goes high.

The current control calibration circuit shown in FIGS. 13A and 13B maybe utilized as follows to calibrate a 4-PAM output driver, such as thedriver of FIG. 5A. When the transistors 1002, 1004 and 1006 are in the“off” state the voltage at the output of the current mode driver isV_(TERM). This corresponds to the symbol 00, which is the zero currentstate and does not need to be calibrated.

The known voltage, V_(TERM) is applied to line 1506 of the comparator1500 and an unknown voltage generated by turning “on” the transistor1002 (from FIG. 5A) is applied to line 1508 of the comparator 1500. Themultiplexor 1502 causes the reference voltage, V_(REFHI), to be appliedto the comparator 1500. Using feedback from the output of the comparator1500, a current control transistor (not shown) coupled in series withthe transistor 1002 is adjusted until the average of the voltages onlines 1506 and 1508 is equal to the reference voltage, V_(REFHI). Thevoltage on line 1508 is now calibrated to correspond with the 4-PAMsymbol “01”.

At this point, the voltage corresponding to the 4-PAM symbol “01” isapplied to line 1506, and an unknown voltage generated by turning “on”the transistors 1002 and 1004 is applied to line 1508. The multiplexor1502 is activated to cause the reference voltage, V_(REFM), to beapplied to the comparator 1500. Using feedback from the output of thecomparator 1500, a current control transistor (not shown) coupled inseries with the transistor 1004 is adjusted until the average of thevoltages on lines 1506 and 1508 is equal to the reference voltage,V_(REFM). The voltage on line 1508 is now calibrated to correspond withthe 4-PAM symbol “11”.

Next, the voltage corresponding to the 4-PAM symbol “11” is applied toline 1506, and an unknown voltage generated by turning “on” thetransistors 1002, 1004 and 1006 is applied to line 1508. The multiplexor1502 is activated to cause the reference voltage, V_(REFLO) to beapplied to the comparator 1500. Using feedback from the output of thecomparator 1500, a current control transistor (not shown) coupled inseries with the transistor 1006 is adjusted until the average of thevoltages on lines 1506 and 1508 is equal to the reference voltage,V_(REFLO). The voltage on line 1508 is now calibrated to correspond withthe 4-PAM symbol “10”.

Those skilled in the art of circuit design will appreciate that thecomparator 1500 may take other forms. FIG. 13D illustrates alternativeembodiments for the differential comparator of FIG. 13B.

Referring again to FIG. 13B, it will be appreciated that if, forexample, the comparator 1500 is implemented as an integrated circuit,then the coupling capacitors 1512 may be implemented using a PMOS FETtopology as shown in FIG. 13E. Such capacitors operate linearly when theapplied voltage, V_(DC), is greater than the magnitude of the thresholdvoltage, V_(T), of the PMOS FET. The averaging and offset cancellationfunctions of the comparator 1500 are not optimally realized when thecapacitors are operated in the non-linear range. It is thereforepreferred that the applied voltage be kept within the linear range. Inaccordance with a preferred embodiment, the applied voltage is withinthe range of approximately 1.0 volts to 1.8 volts. The auto-zerovoltage, V_(AZ), may be approximately 0.6 volts.

An electrical schematic of another preferred alternative to the currentcontrol calibration circuit of FIG. 10 is shown in FIGS. 14A and 14B. Asshown in FIG. 14A, this embodiment includes a comparator 1500, amultiplexor 1502, multi-level voltage reference 1504, and sourcecalibration signals 1506 and 1508, which carry a known voltage signaland an unknown (to be calibrated) voltage signal, respectively. Incomparison to FIG. 13A, the circuit of FIG. 14A differs in that itincludes a resistive voltage combiner 1532 that is coupled to providethe average of the signals on lines 1506 and 1508 to the comparator1500. In addition, for the embodiment of FIG. 14A, the non-overlappingclock driver is replaced by an inverter delay chain 1534.

As shown in FIG. 14B, the comparator 1500 differs from that of FIG. 13B.Notably, a different offset cancellation technique is utilized. For theembodiment of FIG. 14B, a switch 1536 and feedback amplifier 1538 areused to compensate for the offset voltage associated with a differentialamplifier 1540.

The operation of the embodiment shown in FIGS. 14A and 14B will now bedescribed. The timing of the offset cancellation phase and the comparephase are controlled by the inverter delay chain 1534. The inverterdelay chain 1534 produces skewed signals evb, evb2, evb6, etc, shown inFIGS. 14C and 14D. The delay between these signals is approximately thedelay of one or more logic gates. The delay period may be augmented byloading the gate outputs with additional capacitance.

During the cancellation phase, the feedback amplifier 1538 senses theoffset voltage associated with the differential amplifier 1540 asfollows. When timing signal evb2 goes low, the inputs 1542 and 1544 ofthe amplifier 1540 are shorted together by a switch 1546. At the sametime, a switch pair 1548 couples the outputs of the amplifier 1540 tothe inputs of the feedback amplifier 1538. With the inputs 1542 and 1544of the amplifier 1540 being shorted together, any voltage appearing atthe output of the amplifier 1540 may be characterized as an outputoffset voltage. The feedback amplifier 1538 produces output current inthe drains of transistors 1550 and 1552 in an amount that isproportional to the output offset voltage. The current supplied by thefeedback amplifier 1538 works to drive the output offset voltage tozero, thereby balancing the amplifier 1540 when its inputs 1542 and 1544are shorted. The resultant voltage required to produce the balancingcurrent in the feedback amplifier 1538 is stored on the capacitors 1554and 1556 at the end of the cancellation phase when the switches 1548 areopened.

As shown in FIGS. 14C and 14D, shortly after the cancellation phase endson the falling edge of the signal evb, the switches 1546 and 1548 areopened, disconnecting the feedback amplifier 1538 and coupling theinputs 1542 and 1544 to the amplifier 1540, as the signal evb2 goeshigh. The transition of evb2 to high starts the compare phase.Momentarily after the compare phase starts, the signal evb6 goes high,activating the latching stage of the comparator 1500. When the latchingstage is active, the output voltage of the differential amplifier 1540is latched.

The current control calibration circuit shown in FIGS. 14A and 14B maybe utilized to calibrate a 4-PAM output driver in the same manner asdescribed above with respect to FIGS. 13A and 13B.

FIG. 15A is an electrical schematic of a linear transconductor. In alinear region of operation, the output voltage, V_(OUT) is proportionalto the difference between the input voltages, V₁ and V₂. Thus, theoutput of the linear transconductor is balanced, i.e. V_(OUT)=0, whenV₁−V_(REF)=V_(REF)−V₂, or (V₁+V₂)/2=V_(REF).

In accordance with yet another alternative embodiment, therefore, thecomparator comprises a transconductor stage, as shown in FIG. 15B. Forthis embodiment, an offset canceling amplifier, such as the amplifier1538 of FIG. 14B, is preferably utilized.

While the invention has been described in connection with a number ofpreferred embodiments, the foregoing is not intended to limit the scopeof the invention to a particular form, circuit arrangement, orsemiconductor topology. To the contrary, the invention is intended to bedefined by the appended claims and to include such alternatives,modifications and variations as may be apparent to those skilled in theart upon reading the foregoing detailed description.

1. A multiple pulse amplitude modulated driver (multi-PAM driver),comprising: a data signal terminal; and first and second driver circuitscoupled with the data signal terminal to drive alternating data symbolscommunicated by the multi-PAM driver via the data signal terminal,wherein the first and second driver circuits include a first pluralityof binary weighted driver transistors.
 2. The multi-PAM driver of claim1, wherein the first driver circuit is to drive an even data symbolcommunicated by the multi-PAM driver via the data signal terminal andthe second driver circuit is to drive an odd data symbol via the datasignal terminal.
 3. The multi-PAM driver of claim 1, further comprisinga clock input terminal to receive a clock signal, wherein the multi-PAMdriver is to communicate an odd data symbol via the data signal terminalon a first edge of the clock signal and the multi-PAM driver is tocommunicate an even data symbol via the data signal terminal on a secondedge of the clock signal.
 4. The multi-PAM driver of claim 1, whereinthe first drive circuit includes a first subset of the first pluralityof binary weighted driver transistors and the second drive circuitincludes a second subset of the first plurality of binary weighteddriver transistors, the multi-PAM driver further comprising amultiplexer to selectively couple signals associated with odd and evendata symbols from respective ones of the first and second drivercircuits onto the data signal terminal based on a clock signal.
 5. Themulti-PAM driver of claim 1, wherein a respective data symbol includes aleast significant bit and a most significant bit, the multi-PAM driverfurther comprising: a first encoder in the first driver circuit toreceive first input data corresponding to even data symbols and tooutput encoded signals corresponding to the even data symbols; and asecond encoder in the second driver circuit to receive second input datacorresponding to odd data symbols and to output encoded signalscorresponding to the odd data symbols.
 6. The multi-PAM driver of claim1, wherein a respective driver circuit includes a plurality ofdifferential pairs of transistors each coupled to a correspondingvoltage controlled current source, and wherein a first transistor in arespective differential pair of transistors is coupled to a first inputterminal to receive a signal corresponding to a respective data symboland a second transistor in the respective differential pair oftransistors is coupled to a second input terminal to receive a referencesignal.
 7. The multi-PAM driver of claim 6, wherein the correspondingvoltage controlled current source is to adjust a voltage drop over therespective differential pair.
 8. The multi-PAM driver of claim 1,further comprising a plurality of equal sized transistors coupled inparallel with respective ones of at least a subset of the firstplurality of binary weighted driver transistors.
 9. The multi-PAM driverof claim 1, further comprising a second plurality of transistors,wherein a respective one of the second plurality of transistors and arespective one of the first plurality of binary weighted drivertransistors are coupled in series as a respective pair of transistors,and wherein a respective pair of transistors are in parallel with otherpairs of transistors in a respective drive circuit.
 10. The multi-PAMdriver of claim 9, wherein the one of the second plurality oftransistors in the respective pair of transistors is coupled to acorresponding current control bit signal terminal to receive arespective current control bit signal, and wherein the one of the firstplurality of binary weighted driver transistor in the respective pair oftransistors is coupled to an input terminal to receive a signalcorresponding to a respective data symbol.
 11. The multi-PAM driver ofclaim 1, wherein the first and second driver circuits share the firstplurality of binary weighted driver transistors, the multi-PAM driverfurther comprising a switching circuit to selectively couple signalsassociated with the odd and even data symbols onto gates of the firstplurality of binary-weighted driver transistors.
 12. The multi-PAMdriver of claim 11, wherein the switching circuit includes at least onemultiplexer having at least one pair of pass-gate devices.
 13. Themulti-PAM driver of claim 1, further comprising: a plurality of currentcontrol bit signal terminals to receive a plurality of current controlbit signals; and a plurality of current control transistors, wherein arespective current control bit signal terminal in the plurality ofcurrent control bit signal terminals is coupled to a respective currentcontrol transistor in the plurality of current control transistor, andwherein the respective current control transistor is coupled to acorresponding binary weighted drive transistor.
 14. The multi-PAM driverof claim 13, wherein the respective current-control transistor is pairedwith the corresponding binary weighted transistor, and wherein therespective current-control transistor is positioned between thecorresponding binary weighted transistor and the data signal terminal.15. The multi-PAM driver of claim 13, wherein the respectivecurrent-control transistor is paired with the corresponding binaryweighted transistor, and wherein the corresponding binary weightedtransistor is positioned between the respective current-controltransistor and the data signal terminal.
 16. The multi-PAM driver ofclaim 1, further comprising a current control circuit comprising: asource calibration signal circuit to supply at least one sourcecalibration signal; a voltage generator to provide a reference voltagesignal; and a comparator coupled to the voltage generator and the sourcecalibration signal circuit; and a source calibration signal adjustmentcircuit to adjust the at least one source calibration signal inaccordance with an output signal of the comparator.
 17. The multi-PAMdriver of claim 16, wherein adjustment of the at least one sourcecalibration signal includes adjustment of current output by at least arespective binary weighted driver transistor.
 18. The multi-PAM driverof claim 16, wherein the source calibration signal is coupled to thecomparator via a coupling network.
 19. The multi-PAM driver of claim 18,wherein the coupling network selectively couples the at least one sourcecalibration signal to the comparator.
 20. A multiple pulse amplitudemodulated driver (multi-PAM driver), comprising: a first encoder toreceive input data associated with even data symbols and to outputencoded signals associated with the even data symbols; a second encoderto receive input data associated with odd data symbols and to outputencoded signals associated with the odd data symbols; a data signalterminal; a driver circuit coupled with the data signal terminal, thedriver circuit including a plurality of binary weighted drivertransistors; and a switching circuit for selectively coupling theencoded signals associated with the odd and even data symbols to thedriver circuit.
 21. The multi-PAM driver of claim 20, wherein theswitching circuit couples to the driver circuit the encoded signalsassociated with the odd data symbols and the encoded signals associatedwith the even data symbols at distinct times in accordance with a clocksignal.
 22. The multi-PAM driver of claim 21, wherein each data symbolof the even data symbols and odd data symbols includes a leastsignificant bit and a most significant bit.
 23. The multi-PAM driver ofclaim 22, wherein the driver circuit includes at least two sets ofbinary weighted driver transistors.
 24. The multi-PAM driver of claim22, wherein the driver circuit includes three sets of binary weighteddriver transistors.